Travel Nurse ToolBox Depois de ter estreitado para baixo várias ofertas de trabalho de enfermagem de viagens que você pode querer entrar em contato com o recrutador de viagens neste momento via e-mail se você havent feito já para começar a obter respostas às perguntas de listas de perguntas de recrutador e lista de perguntas de habitação. Comece com as suas perguntas mais importantes primeiro. O que é importante pode variar de pessoa para pessoa. Você pode começar com discutir a taxa de pagamento e como funciona, turnos disponíveis, data de início. Reembolsos, em seguida, passar para perguntas mais detalhadas como suas perguntas são respondidas a sua satisfação. Não use discutindo obter um microondas ou um apartamento com um washerdryer se a taxa de pagamento não é mesmo adequado. Seja paciente, mas não um pushover. Negociação é um processo e não termina na primeira chamada sempre. Mantenha as linhas de comunicação abertas. Lembre-se que é todo o pacote que vai decidir se você assinar ou não. Então, se uma parte do pacote está faltando outra parte pode compensar isso. Muitas vezes, embora possa ser óbvio que o pacote é pobre e irremediavelmente não negociável. Neste ponto dizer ao recrutador que você não está interessado para que eles possam passar também. Recrutadores são limitados pelo que seus chefes lhes permitirá fazer ou o que a taxa de base do Hospital é, mas na maioria das vezes há sala wiggle. Existem várias vantagens escondidas que podem manter a comunicação vai como um recrutador e empresa que é flexível e vai trabalhar com você em encontrar a casa certa com amenidades. Às vezes, se você dar algo que você pode obter algo como a assinatura de 6 meses ou mais de 3 meses. Use sua imaginação para fazer um negócio que funciona para eles e você (WinWin). Às vezes você tem que colocar seu pé para baixo e dizer quais são suas necessidades e ser capaz e disposto a recuar se eles não satisfazer essas necessidades. Ter os recursos financeiros ou atribuições alternadas permite que você faça isso com confiança e menos nervoso unha morder e suar. Quando você está em grande necessidade de dinheiro e desesperado e preocupado a sua capacidade de negociar calmamente é perdido. Você pode estar usando Travel Nursing como uma forma de fazer compras para um emprego permanente, para discutir cláusulas no contrato que pode impedir isso ou limitar isso. Pergunte o que a bolsa de renda é para ter uma idéia sobre o quanto eles estão gastando para sua habitação, mas isso pode não ser o montante que eles estão realmente gastando. Eles podem estar recebendo um desconto ou não. Pergunte ao agente de leasing anonimamente o custo de um aluguer de curto prazo, em seguida, figura no aluguer de móveis, utilitários e tal para obter uma estimativa mais próxima. Muitos dos motores de busca do apartamento têm 1 800 números ao agente de leasing assim que você pode começar esta informação. Sempre tem uma almofada de papel 8 X 11 e calculadora ao falar com o recrutador para escrever o pacote inteiro com opções e fazer cálculos rápidos. Isso permitirá que você vá sobre o negócio depois de falar com o recrutador e analisar a informação mais e talvez fazer mais investigação antes de chamar de volta e continuar a negociar. Por favor, informe outros recrutadores que você tem conversado ou se comunicar com se você decidir sobre outra missão como cortesia profissional e para o fato de que eles podem ter um acordo para você mais tarde em sua carreira. Evite alienar futuras oportunidades, embora possa ser inevitável às vezes. Envie um e-mail para informar os recrutadores que você está se comunicando com que você tomou uma atribuição e quando a sua próxima data de disponibilidade é e agradecer-lhes por seu tempo uma vez que o negócio é finalizado. É por isso que eu gosto de chegar ao ponto e ficar focado em obter respostas e negociação, em vez de desperdiçar o seu tempo e meu, o que não significa interrogando quer. O recrutador tem que agradar o hospital e falar ao telefone é uma maneira para eles para avaliar se você se deparar como pessoa competente. Portanto, sempre tente estar preparado para falar em privado. Silêncio onde você tem acesso ao papel e uma calculadora (seus amigos). Se você está falando no telefone celular em seu carro, enquanto outras pessoas estão presentes e rindo e você está em terrível tráfego em uma estrada principal acredito que você não vai encontrar como competente. Mantenha um registro do que foi discutido no telefone. Com e-mail você sempre tem um registro, mas o e-mail é um mau meio quando você chegar à parte intrincada da negociação, onde precisa ser um rápido e para trás comunicação. Certifique-se de todos os acordos são escritos claramente dentro do contrato e tanto o recrutador eo gerente da unidade estão cientes deles. Acordos podem ser solidificados mais por ter o recrutador concordar por e-mail. E-mail que mantém um registro de comunicações passado é útil. Você faz isso usando o mesmo e-mail original para responder e mantê-lo em uma pasta que você pode encontrar facilmente. Perguntas a fazer ao recrutador de enfermagem de viagem. São as horas por semana garantida Enquanto você está em atribuição eo recenseamento é real baixo e você recebe call off eles ainda vão pagar Você existe alguma flutuação necessária para outras unidades Que unidades Se você não quiser flutuar certifique-se que está escrito no contrato. Existe um bônus de conclusão Quanto você pode trabalhar em um reembolso ou per diem ou na taxa de pagamento (bônus são normalmente tributados mais do que o seu salário). Existe um bônus de renovação (se este for um contrato de renovação ou extensão) Negocie para isso porque a instalação teria uma equipe treinada e nenhum pagamento de viagem adicional para outro Viajante. Que tipo de Unidade é Funcionários Outros Funcionários de Apoio Que turnos você vai trabalhar Você terá que flutuar para outras mudanças ou fazer turnos rotativos Você terá que estar de plantão Qual é o pagamento de plantão Taxa básica de pagamento por hora Taxa de pagamento de horas extras Pagamento de férias Quais feriados a Travel Nursing Company tem Você terá que ser Charge RN Quantas vezes Existe Charge Pay Quantas extensões possíveis Qual é a quantidade máxima de extensões permitidas Quanto tempo você terá que ter ido antes de você voltar depois que você está maxed Out Existe uma cláusula para impedir que você seja contratado como um funcionário permanente Se há por quanto tempo Pode o Hospital pagar uma taxa para liberar a cláusula Peça que eles excluí-lo que eles podem se eles querem assinar você. Se você estiver doente, você pode fazer turnos Será que eles deduzem para os custos de habitação relacionados com o tempo que você está doente Você pode estender o contrato se você está doente, por exemplo, uma semana (algumas empresas não vai incomodá-lo se é talvez 2-3 dias em um Atribuição ou trabalhará com você se for mais assim que é sábio discutir esta possibilidade). Se você estender você pode ter algum tempo livre entre Você vai ser cobrado por custos de habitação se você ainda quer manter a mesma habitação Depende quanto tempo, mas se você tem que pagar veja se você pode trocar um bônus por esses custos. Se você pode precisar de algum tempo no meio de uma atribuição de algo muito importante e breve dar o seu recruta e gerente antevisão e chegar a um plano possível. Aluguer de carro fornecido ou Reembolso de aluguer de carro Se você não tomar quanto mais pagou Airfare pago Quanto Quanto se você não tomar quanto mais pago Pagamento Pague Quanto eles fazem o Programa de Vantagens Fiscais Detalhes Temporária Habitação Perguntas. A proximidade com a facilidade (verifique através de mapquest ou googlemaps) Você pode participar na seleção de habitação que eles vão alugar para você Dizendo que você vai considerar o que eles têm se eles consideram o que você encontrar. (Negociação) Qualquer Depósitos (Deve ser ou muito mínimo como um depósito de animal de estimação) Será que eles cobrem utilitários Quais Até que limite (Lembre-se muitas agências de enfermeira de viagem cobrem tudo, exceto talvez telefone, às vezes cabo) O que exatamente está no pacote de mobiliário O que Size Cama Que tamanho TV (cama, mesa de cabeceira, sofá, mesa de café, cadeira reclinável, mesa lateral, 2 lâmpadas, Art vezes) Alguns Corporate Apartments vêm com um pacote de mobiliário agradável real porque os proprietários fornecê-lo, em vez da Travel Nursing Company Aluguel Faça sua pesquisa. Existe um pacote de utensílios de casa (panelas, frigideiras, pratos, copos, colheres, garfos, facas, utensílios de cozinha, microondas, toalhas, lençóis) Washer ampères Secadora Lava-louças Se não onde é o Lavandaria No mesmo andar Quantas WDs. Custos (Eu gosto de ser capaz de lavar minhas roupas quando quiser, sem cobrança). Cabo Telefone básico Internet de alta velocidade (alguns lugares têm wireless) Número de dias que você pode mover antes da data de início da atribuição Número de dias Para mover para fora após o último dia da atribuição Que unidade final do assoalho (eu prefiro a parte superior da extremidade do assoalho para a segurança ampère quieta mas verific o layout em linha para problemas físicos tais como perto de uma rua ocupada, estacionamento, pool) Sem ele você pode precisar de abrir janelas que convida ruído, luz, poluição e até mesmo bugs ou ladrões.) Square Feet de apartamento. (Ive visto fotos esticadas na Internet e as pessoas mentem sobre a metragem quadrada exata. Para a maior parte, se ele está listado em um grande motor de busca apt geralmente é certo, mas se não for você deve descobrir através de feedback de outros viajantes sobre viagens Fóruns de Enfermeiros ou Avaliações de Apartamento). Nome dos Apartamentos e endereço (Com essa informação só você pode encontrar um monte de informações na Internet e também chamar o agente de leasing.) Travel Nursing Company Benefits8230 Seguro de Saúde Nome da Empresa Cobertura do 1º Dia Eles podem enviar e-mail Informações Básicas sobre a cobertura Reembolso Para levar o seu próprio seguro de saúde Quanto (eu prefiro levar o meu próprio Blue Cross Blue Shield que é bom em quase todos os lugares. Esta maneira eu tenho controle direto do meu seguro e se eu mudar para outra empresa sem aborrecimentos. Negatar o reembolso. Até 300 meses e tão baixo quanto 125. 401K Correspondência Quanto Data de Início Bonus de Referência Para referir outros viajantes e quanto Quando você recebe-lo Quantas vezes você pode recebê-lo Bônus Fim da atribuição Estendendo uma atribuição Início da atribuição Bônus de Fidelidade ou Reembolso de Prêmios para Reembolso de Educação Continuada por Licença Perguntas a Fazer ao Gerente de Contratação8230 Nota: Muitos dos Perguntas que você perguntou o recrutador sobre a facilidade precisa ser perguntado ao gerente de contratação também. Isso é importante porque eles podem ter uma resposta melhor e assim o recrutador eo gerente de contratação estão lendo o mesmo script. Há um contrato entre a Facilidade ea Travel Nursing Company que você não vê. Este contrato pode variar do que você tem entre sua companhia de enfermeira de viagem e você. Por esta razão, você precisa verificar as coisas. Também se o Gerente de Contratação não é o Gerente Direto da Unidade eu pediria para falar com esse gerente, se possível. Uma onça de prevenção vale uma libra de cura. Isso também lhe dará a chance de ler essa pessoa e seu estilo de gestão. Staffing Grid ou fórmula Shift ou turnos de trabalho Você pode obter o seu turnos de volta para trás os mesmos dias cada semana ou espaçadas etc (Agora é a hora de negociar isso e se eles concordam que você pode querer isso escrito no contrato) Assistive Staff O que Eles fazem Quantos Viajantes Têm Alargado Vários procedimentos dependendo da sua especialidade Orientação. Horas em sala de aula Horas de orientação em cada unidade que você vai trabalhar Se houver aulas a tomar mais tarde em sua atribuição de enfermagem de viagem vão ajustar a sua agenda, se você não quiser ir mais de horas e concorda em informá-lo com antecedência Layout da unidade, Da estação de enfermeiros, salas de entrevistas, outros quartos necessários Turn over of patients Duração da estadia Censo médio Pergunte por que eles estão usando os viajantes e como os viajantes são tratados pela equipe permanente. Você pode querer esperar até mais tarde na conversa para perguntar esta e prestar muita atenção à resposta observando quaisquer hesitações. NOTA: Examine as atribuições que aparecem no radar com freqüência ao longo do ano, o que pode ser um sinal de que o hospital não era viajante amigável em tudo. Obter feedback de outros viajantes. Os programas da vantagem de imposto permitem que você receba reembolsos isentos de imposto para cobrir despesas adicionais e despesas da hospedagem ou para receber o alojamento livre fornecido livre da viagem da enfermeira do curso. Para participar do Programa de Vantagem Fiscal você precisa manter uma residência como locatário ou proprietário em seu local de residência permanente e estado com despesas associadas e estar trabalhando longe desta residência em uma atribuição temporária vivendo em uma residência temporária separada. Esta residência permanente é chamado de casa de imposto permanente como definido pelo IRS. Você deve ter conexões a este endereço, tais como: Licença de Motorista, Seguros, Licença Profissional, Registro de Eleitores, Impostos de Propriedade e outras várias contas ligadas ao Lar de Imposto Permanente. É aconselhável retornar lá entre as atribuições, se possível, solicitar empregos lá, fazer negócios lá, até mesmo trabalhar lá, se possível. Geralmente, se você reside em outro estado ou mesmo estado, local diferente, por mais de um ano, você pode perder o seu status Permanente Home Fiscal. Manter a documentação dessas atividades para manter a informação organizada e facilmente à mão se você precisasse. As empresas de viagens geralmente apenas você tem que preencher um formulário de verificação de que você Home imposto permanente. A Travel Nursing Company lhe dará um reembolso de imposto livre por dia que você está em uma atribuição permanecendo em habitação temporária longe de sua Casa de Imposto Permanente (refeições e amp; Este reembolso por dia é diferente onde quer que você vá. As taxas neste site são na realidade reembolsos figurado para funcionários do governo viajando para, ficar em hotéis andor ou comer em outras cidades para fins de trabalho. Os custos que um viajante incorre em uma base diária podem não ser tanto dependendo de vários fatores geralmente porque o viajante está permanecendo geralmente pelo menos 3 meses e comprando mantimentos na maior parte em vez de comer para fora para cada refeição. Isso poderia ser diferente se você estiver em um contrato de curto prazo, como um Strike. Algumas agências de enfermeira de viagem não podem usar a taxa máxima o tempo todo, a menos que reflita mais na realidade os verdadeiros custos. Este reembolso de imposto livre é separado da sua taxa de pagamento que é tributado. Algumas empresas de enfermagem de viagem que são novos para isso ficar confuso e acho que o reembolso é por dia que você trabalha, mas isso é errado. É por dia que você está na atribuição que residem nessa área em habitação temporária longe de sua residência fiscal permanente. Não há nenhuma regra de 50 ou 80 milhas de raio com o IRS. Essas regras são mais que as regras com Travel Nursing Companies andor Hospitais para definir algum padrão para estar longe de casa ou para evitar permanente ou perm permanente pessoal na área de conversão para viajantes (Hospital Regra). Viagens Agências de Enfermagem, se eles estão fornecendo habitação temporária só vai usar as refeições e taxa incidental máxima para calcular o reembolso de impostos livres, embora você não será tributado para o seu alojamento fornecido. Se você está recebendo um subsídio de habitação em vez da Travel Nurse Agency que fornece a habitação, a Travel Nurse Company usará tanto a taxa de hospedagem por dia quanto a tarifa diária para calcular seu total de reembolsos livres de impostos dependendo de como essas taxas refletem Verdadeiros custos para você nessa área. Abaixo estão alguns exemplos de como algumas empresas figuram reembolsos Tax Advantage. O site do governo informa uma taxa diária para refeições e mult. Incidentes de 25 dias para um determinado local. Eles estão dizendo que o máximo que você iria gastar por dia para refeições amp Incidentals é 25 25 dias X 7 dias 175week 25 X 30 750 mês (Tax Free Reimbursements) Alot de Viagens Enfermagem Empresas também figura-lo em uma taxa de pagamento virtual para ver o valor real Que você obtenha em termos de shour. Vamos dizer que você trabalha 36 horas por semana com uma taxa de pagamento de 28 horas e você recebe 475 semanas em reembolsos isentos de impostos (refeições Ampulheta Incidentals Habitação para este exemplo) 475week dividido por 36 hoursweek trabalhado 13.19hr Taxa de pagamento virtual 28hr Taxa de pagamento real 13.19hr Taxa de pagamento virtual 38.19hr (Taxa de pagamento real Taxa de pagamento virtual) Esta é apenas uma maneira para você ver o valor total. Seu talão de cheque de pagamento ou contrato deve evitar a linguagem acima porque reembolsos isentos de impostos não são taxas de pagamento. Se você for fornecido habitação pela Travel Nurse Company você ainda pode convertê-lo para uma taxa de pagamento virtual, se você sabe o custo da habitação refeições e reembolso incidentes. Se você não fosse um Viajante de Vantagem Tributária você teria que pagar impostos sobre sua habitação fornecida ou salário de habitação e você não poderia receber Refeições Alimentares e Reembolsos Incidentais Impostos ou. Se você não é oferecido o Programa de Vantagem Fiscal, mas você manter uma Casa de Imposto Permanente você pode deduzir as despesas que estão acima do que é coberto pela Travel Nursing Agency no final do ano para manter um registro dessas despesas e manter recibos. Mesmo como um Tax Advantage Traveller você precisa manter o controle de despesas razoáveis acima do que é coberto pela Travel Nursing Company, tais como despesas médicas, custos de viagem, quilometragem para localização, quilometragem para e de facilidade de Temporary Housing vezes número de viagens. Quando você deduzir essas coisas a quantidade de dólar que acaba em seu retorno de imposto não é tanto quanto você iria receber o reembolso Tax Advantage Tax Advantages. É por isso que as pessoas são atraídas para programas de vantagem fiscal. Algumas desvantagens de ser um empregado da vantagem de imposto são: Uma renda relatável mais baixa que possa afetar começar empréstimos baseados em sua renda. Com a concorrência para empréstimos estes dias eu acho que isso tem pouco efeito, especialmente se você tem bom crédito. Alguns bancos são amigáveis para enfermeiros ou profissionais de saúde. Eles consideram-los mutuários confiáveis, porque há uma grande demanda por empregos de saúde e outros fatores. O banco direito ou cooperativa de crédito, bom crédito eo oficial de empréstimo direito pode ser mais importante do que o maior rendimento relatável. Seu Seguro Social que você recebe quando se aposenta é baseado em sua renda relatável. Portanto, se você fizer menos renda relatável você terá menos dinheiro quando você se aposentar da Segurança Social. Solução: Você toma algum ou todo o valor extra que você recebe e investi-lo com sabedoria e tem ainda mais quando se aposentar. Algumas pessoas simplesmente não querem o aborrecimento de voltar para casa e manter uma residência permanente ou sendo limitado em quanto tempo eles podem ficar em outro estado. Você ainda pode ser capaz de manter a residência em outro estado, sem a exigência de ter um IRS Oficial Definido Permanent Tax Home. Evite os contratos onde a Travel Nursing Company paga uma Taxa de Pagamento Extremamente Baixa que está abaixo da norma para a sua profissão para esse local, como 10hr junto com o Imposto Livre Reembolsos. Você não quer se misturar com empresas de enfermagem de viagens que podem levá-lo em apuros com o IRS. Este é apenas um artigo geral e você deve procurar o aconselhamento e orientação de um profissional de imposto experiente em trabalhar com profissionais de viagem. Ive listados alguns abaixo, juntamente com alguns outros sites úteis. Taxa de viagem - Joe Smith é o ir para o especialista para Healthcare Traveller Taxes. Definitivamente ler e compreender todos os seus artigos sobre o assunto. Ele também está prontamente disponível para perguntas sobre Fóruns Delphi - enfermeiras e terapeutas de viagens. Este doesnt requerem uma casa de imposto permanente. Você está cansado daqueles sempre crescente prémios de seguro de saúde Você está cansado de ter de discriminar deduções para despesas médicas e pulando através de aros para talvez obter um pouco mais de dinheiro de volta através de restituição, se houver Em seguida, Pelo menos você deve olhar para um seguro de saúde HSA qualificado E HSAs. Em primeiro lugar, não confundir HSAs com FSAs (Flexible Spending Accounts) que muitos empregadores oferecem. Você sabe que você reservar um montante específico de sua renda por ano para despesas médicas ou de assistência à infância que não é tributado, mas se você não usá-lo para esse ano você perde-lo. HSAs são mais como um IRA em que o seu dinheiro pode crescer e ser investido. Você pode retirar o dinheiro de seu HSA sem penalidades ou pagar todos os impostos, desde que seja uma despesa médica qualificada IRS que é uma categoria mais ampla de coisas em comparação com o que seu seguro vai cobrir. Para iniciar um HSA você tem que ter um seguro HSA qualificado. O que é que é um seguro de saúde mais alta dedutível sem sistema de co pagamento para meds ou visitas ao escritório, mas pode oferecer exames anuais gratuitas, OBGYN visitas anuais e descontados ou serviços gratuitos. Isso requer um salto no pensamento fora do que você está acostumado a ler e considerar antes de rejeitar. Primeiro pergunte a si mesmo quanto eu estou pagando extra por ano em pagamentos de prémio mais elevados por mês para o privilégio de ter copays e franquias mais baixas em comparação com os prémios mais baixos por mês oferecidos por vários planos de saúde HSA É que dedutível por família ou por pessoa Que sobre Aqueles fora dos custos de bolso que eu pago após a franquia é cumprida, o que também pode ser considerado parte da franquia Há variedade de planos de uma variedade de seguradoras de saúde. HSAs começou como uma opção em 2004, assim como o tempo passa você vai ver mais opções. Eu carrego meu próprio seguro e as companhias da enfermeira do curso reembolsam-lhe geralmente até 300 um o mês de minha própria experiência mas depende o pacote total que você negocia. A beleza dele é que a sua conta HSA e é portátil. Você não tem que movê-lo para outro Administrador HSA se você mudar de empregador ou tornar-se independente, a menos que você quer, por exemplo, para obter um melhor serviço ou obter melhores opções de investimento. Perfeito para os viajantes como podemos girar para algumas ou mais das nossas empresas favoritas mais ele nos dá uma vantagem fiscal se você tem uma casa de imposto permanente ou não. Empresas de viagens podem colocar fundos em sua HSA sem ter que pagar impostos sobre ele. Eles podem oferecer um plano de seguro de saúde de cobertura de grupo HSA ou você pode iniciar seu próprio plano de seguro de saúde HSA individual como eu tenho. OK, você diz. HSA planos de saúde pode ser grande se você é saudável e não precisa ver o médico muitas vezes, mas o que se você fizer e você está em prescrições múltiplas. Vou dizer prémios de seguro de saúde tradicionais estão aumentando a cada ano, especialmente se você tem uma doença crônica e você paga muito tempo em prémios para os co baixos paga, mas você se tornou tão utilizado para que você não acha que o dinheiro como uma perda. Você realmente tem que crunch os números considerando poupança de impostos e prémios mais baixos e você vai ver que você não tem que ser saudável para tirar vantagem de HSAs. Qualquer pessoa ou entidade pode colocar dinheiro em sua HSA livre de impostos. Empregadores, família, amigos, você mesmo ou qualquer outra pessoa que queira ajudá-lo. Você pode configurar uma quantia pré-tributada por meio de um empregador ou você pode colocar dinheiro pós-tributado nele e diminuir seu rendimento tributável anual pelo valor que você depositou em sua HSA (Ajuste à Dedução de Renda). Você pode gastar dinheiro para despesas médicas de sua HSA geralmente por cheques eles emitirem você andor um cartão de VISA ou Débito. Se você paga fora do bolso ao longo do ano e não tem fundos ou fundos limitados em sua HSA você pode fazer um depósito ou depósitos até 17 de abril do próximo ano e aplicá-lo ao ano anterior para ser capaz de fazer o ajuste À dedução do lucro tributável anual. Depois que o dinheiro é depositado em seu HSA você pode escrever uma verificação de HSA para yourself igual a o que fora de seus custos médicos do bolso para esse ano, que é bàsicamente reembolsando-se se você necessitar mas você começar ainda o crédito para seu depósito para finalidades do imposto. Se você não tem mesmo o dinheiro para fazer o acima você pode precisar de um empréstimo de curto prazo da família, amigos, banco, ou mesmo o seu cartão de crédito para duas semanas tops ou um mês para dar-se um tempo buffer. Esperançosamente embora você mantenha o dinheiro em seu HSA e constrói de ano para ano como um IRA. Administradores HSA lhe dará várias opções para investir esse dinheiro em sua HSA. Na idade de aposentadoria você pode retirar HSA por qualquer motivo, sem penalidades. Não é tributado sobre o dinheiro que você ou qualquer outra pessoa que depósitos na HSA. Não é tributado sobre juros de investimento gerados em fundos HSA. Não é tributado sobre o dinheiro que você retirar da HSA para despesas médicas (IRS) Você pode manter sua HSA se você mudar para um plano de saúde HSA não qualificado, mas você não pode fazer quaisquer depósitos. Você pode fazer retiradas embora. Novo em 2007: Você pode transferir fundos de um IRA ou FSA (conta de gastos flexíveis) uma vez na vida para sua HSA, mas você deve manter um plano de seguro de saúde HSA qualificado para 12 meses após o rollover ou você teria que pagar impostos mais 10 pena. Você ainda pode manter Vision Insurance e Dental Insurance. Muitos viajantes de primeira vez podem receber uma pensão de montante fixo de seu empregador anterior. Você poderia rolar isso em um IRA padrão para evitar impostos e manter o controle sobre ele e, em seguida, mais tarde rolar parte dela em uma HSA, uma vez que você tem um plano de seguro de saúde HSA qualificado. Para obter mais informações sobre HSAs e HSA planos de seguro de saúde qualificados: Wikipedia - Health Savings Account - Up to date Informações detalhadas. E-Health Insurance - Encontre HSA planos de saúde para o seu estado e Compare viagem enfermeiros ou Viajando Allied Healthcare Profissionais trabalho temporário contratos para hospitais ou instalações. Eles trabalham através de uma agência ou como um contratante independente ou como um empregado sazonal para uma instalação. A escassez de profissionais de saúde, especialmente em enfermagem fornece uma fonte sem fim de Viagens enfermeira atribuições todo e por algum tempo para vir. Alguns viajantes têm viajado por 20 anos ou mais por isso definitivamente pode ser feito em tempo integral como uma carreira se você quiser ou você pode fazer pausas entre atribuições e ver o mundo. São os salários e benefícios o mesmo que uma enfermeira regular Geralmente é maior para atrair profissionais de saúde, especialmente quando você figura na habitação, reembolsos de viagem, bônus. Muitas das empresas de enfermagem de viagem também têm os mesmos ou melhores benefícios do que muitos hospitais como 401K, seguro de saúde fornecido ou um reembolso, reembolsos CEU, reembolso Licensure, seguro de vida. Incapacidade, Recompensas de Lealdade, Bónus de Referência, Bónus de Conclusão, Programas de Vantagem Fiscal, Reembolso de Viagem, Concursos, Bónus de Extensão. Que áreas de enfermagem você pode praticar como uma enfermeira viajando ICU, OU, ER, Med-Surg. Diálise, Psych, Cath, LampD, PEDS, PICU, STICU, Saúde Doméstica, Gestão, Supervisores, Cuidados de Longo Prazo, Enfermagem, Rehab, Step Down, Gerenciamento de Casos, Profissionais de Enfermagem, NPs Especialistas, Especialistas em Enfermagem Clínica, Nurse Anesthesists, LPNs , LVNs, mesmo CNAs às vezes amp. Incluindo outras profissões de saúde como terapeutas respiratórios, fisioterapeutas, fonoaudiólogos, assistentes sociais, médicos, técnicos especializados, técnicos licenciados, técnicos de radiologia e outros. Quais são os benefícios e vantagens de ser uma enfermeira viajando Aumento da recompensa financeira. Viajar e ver o mundo enquanto você ainda é jovem e ser pago. Aprender novas habilidades e trabalhar em diferentes contextos. Expanda seus horizontes. Liberdade para decolar entre as atribuições eo dinheiro para fazer as coisas. Saindo da rotina e sempre experimentando coisas novas em seu trabalho e ambiente. Onde você mora como uma enfermeira viajando Geralmente um bom apartamento privado de um quarto ou maior, dependendo do que você negociar eo que você precisa. Algumas pessoas ficam em estadas prolongadas suites que são como estúdios. Algumas pessoas viajam em RVs. Você tem que encontrar sua própria habitação Não, geralmente a empresa encontra, mas eu recomendo que você faça pesquisas e comparar os resultados. Ninguém está mais motivado do que você em encontrar a melhor habitação que a empresa pode colocar em seu nome. Algumas pessoas vão receber o subsídio de habitação e encontrar a sua própria habitação. Tudo depende da sua situação. Por exemplo, um RVer terá o salário de habitação em geral. Eu mesmo, eu prefiro não ter a habitação em meu nome. Seu salário de Habitação ou Habitação é isento de impostos se você mantiver uma casa de imposto permanente. Você tem que pagar por sua habitação Não, você não deve, a menos que você está sendo pago como contratante independente onde você recebe apenas uma taxa de pagamento que é para cobrir todas as suas despesas e salário. Como um contratante independente ou subcontratado você pode deduzir muitas despesas mais que são despesas de negócios. Quanto tempo são as atribuições para Geralmente durante 13 semanas de cada vez. Muitas pessoas estender mais treze semanas se a necessidade está lá e eles gostam da instalação. Contratos ou atribuições podem variar em qualquer lugar de 4 semanas a 26 semanas e atribuições no exterior, como na Austrália pode variar de 1 -2 anos. Você começa a escolher onde você quer ir Sim, dependendo da disponibilidade de atribuições entre os 300 Plus Travel Nurse Empresas nos Estados Unidos. Existem empresas em outros países, bem como os países de língua inglesa eo Oriente Médio. O Departamento de Defesa e os Contratos Militar com enfermeiros e outros profissionais de saúde em outros países, como na Europa, Japão, Alemanha, Itália, etc Você pode escolher qualquer estado no país para trabalhar dentro Mesmo Havaí e Alaska Sim, mas você precisa de um Licença para o estado que você vai trabalhar dentro Há um grupo de Estados chamado o Compacto Enfermeira que permite que você use sua licença em outros estados compactos sem qualquer papelada. A captura é que você deve ser um residente de um estado compacto e manter uma licença (RN ou LPN) lá. Para os estados fora do Pacto você precisa aplicar para a sua licença através desse conselho estadual de enfermagem. O Conselho Nacional de Conselhos Estaduais de Enfermagem mantém um site com links para todos os sites da Secretaria Estadual de Enfermagem ou números de telefone, bem como um mapa de Estados Compacto. Novos estados estão gradualmente sendo adicionados à lista de estado compacto. Muitos estados são quotwalk thruquot estados significando que você pode viajar para o seu Conselho de Enfermagem e geralmente obter a sua licença no mesmo dia, se a sua licença (s) está em boa situação. É melhor entrar em contato com o Conselho de Enfermagem para obter informações atualizadas por telefone ou através de seu site. Que tal um transporte Muitas pessoas Viajar pelo seu próprio carro por isso é importante ter um veículo confiável. Algumas pessoas voam e usam um aluguel de carros ou transporte público quando chegar lá, como em cidades maiores, onde o estacionamento pode ser caro. Muitas companhias da enfermeira do curso voarão uma pessoa a sua atribuição e fornecerão um rental do carro. Algumas pessoas dirigem seus RVs com um carro rebocado atrás ou rebocam um Trailer. Os Reembolsos de Viagem e o Estágio de Habitação geralmente cobrirão os custos de RV. Ive sido pesquisando este eu mesmo, mas tenha em mente que pode reduzir a sua flexibilidade para atribuições e quão perto você pode estar em sua instalação. Movendo-se em algum lugar novo e não sabendo que alguém poderia ficar muito solitário, fazer viajando enfermagem empresas oferecem algum tipo de programas para você ficar conectado na sua nova cidade Sim, isso é verdade e algo a considerar muito antes de viajar. Eu não vi nenhum programa da empresa eu mesmo e eu revisei todos os sites da Travel Nurse Empresas, mas há muitos Travel Nurse Internet Fóruns onde os viajantes se conectam com outros viajantes em diferentes cidades. Muitos Viajantes viajam com outro Viajante para compartilhar um apartamento e poupar dinheiro ou ainda ter apartamentos separados. Eu viajo com minha esposa, mas ainda sinto falta de casa às vezes. É importante que você pesquisa uma área antes de ir lá e conversar com outros Viajantes através da Internet Fóruns que foram lá. O céu de uma pessoa é outro inferno das pessoas assim que tome o conselho com um grão do sal. Also its important to have housing that is friendly and in a nice environment with amenities which can make up for a lot. I Travel with my laptop which helps me research the area, keep in touch with home, market myself for future assignments. One thing I have learned is that you never know 100 if you will like something until you have done it. What do you like most about being a traveling nurse I like the freedom, the financial reward, the actual traveling, the challenges, the being able to go places and do things I would never have done or been able to do. Just last December my wife and I went to Brazil to vacation after working in the Virgin Islands, then the Florida Keys and maybe a cruise next or just go home and take a break. What are the opportunities for advancement as a traveling nurse Actually, opportunities permanent and travel have come my way on a regular basis since I have been traveling. On my first assignment I was a Nurse Manager in AZ which was great opportunity then I worked as a RN SupportEducator for the VA in Los Angeles. It definitely opens doors to new opportunities. Many Travel Nursing Companies offer online applications on there web site. Using the below process youll be able to fill out on line applications rather quickly. You may want to fill out online applications for companies that show promise but usually its best to wait until a recruiter presents an assignment with the details that you are definitely interested in. Play it by ear. Keep all of the below information in the order listed in one Notepad Text File that you can minimize and maximize when you need to copy fragments and paste them in the online application. I use the Notepad text file because it is easier to manipulate than Word Processor Documents like WORD. doc and the online applications only allow unformatted text anyway. As you fill out documents you will find Auto Complete Function in Internet Explorer or other Browsers will offer to fill In a block of text you have filled before. Some online application sections disable auto complete so you will only be able to copy and paste or type. The below information is all possible info you may need to supply usually in this order. Name amp Address (perm) Address (temporary) Email address Cell phone, Home phone or Voice mail Original License Date (when you first were issued your first license) State Licenses (numbers) Expiration Dates License of Resident State Certifications, Expiration Dates Clinical Experience in Reverse Chronological Order with below info: Facility Name, address, phone number Dates of Employment, Job Titles, Job duties Job type: Perm, Per diem, Travel Nursing Assignment Supervisors name, phone number extension, email. alternate phone numbers References: name, phone number extension, email. alternate phone numbers Not necessary to list Travel Nurse Companies you worked for. (Confidential) Also keep copies of the below documents to scan and email or fax. Licenses Certifications Drivers License Employment Physical (current) (some companies may send you to their own medical screening if so request a copy for future use) Immunization Records PPD Resume Complete Reference list Letters of Reference Past Evaluations Skills check list (make sure it is a comprehensive one so the Company will accept it otherwise they may want you to use theirs) W-2 (keep a blank copy for that year) I-9 (Proof of citizenship) (Keep a Blank Copy for that year) Copy of Check with VOID written across (for Direct Deposit) There will be other documents that are more Company specific which just require your signature and to be faxed back or scanned and emailed back. I found the best way to scan the above documents is using my portable, usb powered Cannon flat bed scanner (cost me 29 at Circuit City) which came with easy to use software. I Scan to a multi page PDF type file with high compression at 150 - 300 dpi, depending, (dots per inch) in Gray scale. That way you have a quality image but not to big to email either. The multi page setting allows you to have more than one page per PDF file. I have been able to scan all the above documents into one file less than 1 megabyte which is easy to email or fax if you want to using FAX program built into Windows XP to fax directly from the application. Basically you chose FAX instead of your Printer in the Print Dialogue Box then follow the directions from there. You can also save files as attachments to emails in you web mail such as Yahoo, Gmail, Hotmail which all offer free accounts. You could then forward a saved email with attachment if you needed to. Occasionally you may have to resize documents which can be done at a print shop or even your printer at work. You can also scan the image as a jpeg and then insert it into a WORD document by keying in (Alt - I - P - F ) after you click the blinking cursor where you want the image file placed. Single click on the center of the image, Point the mouse pointer on the vertical or horizontal edge until you see double arrows, then left click drag to resize and save. Probably a dozen or more ways to do this. Resizing or enlarging to be specific is usually needed when faxing as the documents get degraded or dont come out as clear on the other end when faxing as many of you probably know. Another thing I found important is to carry a pen that writes in a dark bold black to use especially when people are filling out your evaluation forms as well as asking them to Print Clearly. Youll be glad you did this when you go to scan and may be able to keep your dpi (dots per inch) to 150 which make your file smaller and even easier to send. I know all of this may sound complicated and a lot of work but actually the goal is to make it easier for you and other recruiters in a systematic way. I do keep hard copies in one folder as a backup if all else fails or I had to fax and email wasnt an option. There have been times I didnt have a phone line but had access to a fax machine and Im glad I had the hard copies to just load up in the fax machine and send. There have been times I had a phone line or access to a Fax Machine without long distance access and I needed to fax long distance. Solution: Penny Talk calling card. Basically you enter their toll free number, two commas, your ID, two commas, Pass code, four commas, and then the area code and number, then send. 1 cent per minute USA, Great Foreign rates as well. Usually pretty reliable but occasionally may take a few attempts but a great option when you need it as well as avoiding using up your anytime minutes on your cell phone. Other options include Efax, MaxEmail and a dozen of others which allow you to Fax through your Internet connection at a charge. MaxEmail doesnt require software to download. Efax allows you to have a number for voicemail that can be delivered to your email and an efax number that people can fax to and is delivered to your email (Free up to a limit). Evoice is another option for voicemail to email. Hopefully youve researched your housing thoroughly but here are some things to check for before you move in move or meet the leasing agent. Drive around the apartment complex and area and look for generally cleanliness, landscaping, vehicle conditions, balcony areas. This will give you some assessment on how the place is managed and what type of people live there. Remember the more buildings and stories in the buildings the more traffic. Check the layout and where your apartment is near to assess for potential security issues or noise and such. See what lighting is available for nighttime security. Is there a security light that will shine right in your apartment window Maybe talk to a few neighbors to get their assessment. Are a lot of people moving out or in A lot of students parties domestic disturbances Sort of be a detective. Check the amenities out and see what shape they are in. Is the pool closed Heated What conditions is the exterior of the buildings When was it built A lot of this info you can get before you get there from various resources mentioned in previous articles but you always need to double and triple verify. People give inaccurate information and conditions change and so forth. You may even want to try the drive from the apartment to the facility to get an idea of drive time and obstacles. All of the above shouldnt take all afternoon unless you enjoy playing Sherlock Holmes or a tad bit obsessive. Now that you are satisfied you can now meet the leasing agent. Be friendly but assertive because they can be a great resource and they will be the person to troubleshoot problems. Make sure they walk you through the apartment. When you do a walk through write down problems on clip board with carbon paper between so they get a copy and you keep the original. Below is a reminder lists of things to check. Open all blinds and turn on all lights to see better Check for bugs everywhere. Condition of walls, carpet, tiles. Door locks and window locks for effectiveness. Bathroom ventilation fan (does it actually have a vent outside ask to see). Dryer Ventilated to outside (some arent which can make it hot). Toilet flushes well. Good water pressure, hot water, clean. Cabinets in good condition. Closetroom doors in good condition. Has all of the furniture arrived if rented (condition, fleas). Fire Extinguishers and locations (current tag). Location of mailboxes (does your key work). Thermostat ACHeatFan working. Fridge condition, temperature, Freon leaks. All cable outlets work. Location of phone outlets. WasherDryer working (making any noises). Location of Trash. Laundry room condition, number of washersdryers, cost, distance from apartment Listen to noise from stairs, other doors closing, general sound-proofness. Ask about maintenance policy, landscaping times. Location of Parking, visitor parking, (covered or not, important in areas such as AZ). Ask about closest grocery store and other community info IMPORTANT: Use your instincts and do not take residency in housing that obviously unacceptable other than problems that could be easily fixed. Make an agreeable time and date items will be fixed. If you take residency you will lose leverage to get another apartment. If you do not take residency inform the recruiter on call immediately and the leasing agent. Make a clear agreement about going to a hotel and that you can transfer the hotel bill to them. Use your AAA Travel guide for info on a hotel near your facility and that is suitable and affordable. Try to get a hotel with High-speed Internet Access (wireless if possible) so you can use your lap top to help finding another apartment. Be assertive not aggressive first. Try to work with your recruiter to find a reasonable solution. If that does not work use the chain of command but always keep communication channels open. It may happen sometimes even after appropriate research. Think of problems as challenges or a game and you are more likely to be successful. CoolantAntifreeze Motor Oil TowelsWindow cleaner First Aid Kit Cell Phone DC Chargercell AC Chargercell Flashlightbatteries RegistrationLicenseInsurance AAA Card with VIN number PonchoJacketGloves if car stuck in cold weather Spare Tire Old cell phone (analog) if not on your current cell. Allows you to call 911 without service in places where there is no digital coverage. Small tool kit Credit cards Ice Scraper (cold weather) Emergency Weather Alert Radio 2 way radios if separate vehicles (GPRSGRMS) Eye GlassesSun Glasses Moist Towelettes Meds including Maalox, Imodium AD (Travelers sickness) PenSmall tablet MapsItinerary AAA Travel Guide to visiting states Pillows ComfortableLoose Travel clothes Separate clothesitems you will need at hotel stops Address book with numbers of RecruiterOn call Recruiter Reliable friends Contact numbers for Apartment Agent and agreed times to meet Camera to document your Trip Rolling Light weight suitcases can help keep things securenot loose and organized. Also provides for easy unloading. Snacks for the Trip (Yummy). Toilet paper (cushioning and emergencies) The Apartment Pillows (they never give you enough also helps cushion in vehicle) Linens (I like my own and cushioning) Humidifier (Dry Environment like AZ) Air Purifier Febreeze for odors Alarm clock (battery operated) I use my cell phone Welcome Mat Some items that are compact but make you feel at home. AAA Travel Guide of the area Small phone Book so you can carry in car Good Map of the areaGPS handheld like Gorman to navigate Eye Cover Blackout Covers for windows for us night people Apartment FinderGuide from Apartment complexReal Estate Company If alternate housing is needed (has good maps to see locations) Telephone non-cordless with light up dial for when the power goes out 9 Bug Spray Roach Discs Maybe Bomb (Bug Spray) apartment before unpacking Extra key copies Mailbox key Toilet paper Small vacuum if not supplied Light weight Laundry basketbag Travel Alarm for front door Stick to lock sliding patio door small saw to cut to proper length Spices, Pot pans etc just enough if not supplied (Try to bring multi purpose items).GASES, LIQUIDS and SOLIDS application of the particle model for the three states of matter particle models, describing, explaining the properties of gases, liquids and solids Doc Browns Chemistry KS4 science GCSEIGCSE Revision Notes Comparison of t he Propertie s of GASES, LIQUIDS and SOLIDS States of Matter gasliquidsolid revision notes Part 1 The kinetic particle model and describing and explaining the properties of gases, liquids and solids, state changes and solutions (sections 1a to 3d) You should know that the three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. Melting and freezing take place at the melting point, boiling and condensing take place at the boiling point. The three states of matter can be represented by a simple model in which the particles are represented by small solid spheres. Particle theory can help to explain melting, boiling, freezing and condensing. The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas depends on the strength of the forces between the particles of the substance and the nature of the particles involved depends on the type of bonding and the structure of the substance. The stronger the forces between the particles the higher the melting point and boiling point of the substance. For details see structure and bonding notes. The physical state a material adopts depends on its structure, temperature and pressure. State symbols used in equations: (g) gas (l) liquid (aq) aqueous solution (s) solid aqueous solution means something dissolved in water Most diagrams of particles on this page are 2D representations of their structure and state EXAMPLES OF THE THREE PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER GASES e. g. the air mixture around us (including the oxygen needed for combustion) and the high pressure steam in the boiler and cylinders of the steam locomotive. All of the gases in air are invisible, being colourless and transparent. Note that the steam you see outside of a kettle or steam locomotive is actually fine liquid droplets of water, formed from the expelled steam gas condensing when it meets the cold air the state change of gas to liquid (same effect in mist and fog formation). LIQUIDS e. g. water is the most common example, but so are, milk, hot butter, petrol, oil, mercury or alcohol in a thermometer. SOLIDS e. g. stone, all metals at room temperature (except mercury), rubber of walking boots and the majority of physical objects around you. In fact most objects are useless unless they have a solid structure On this page the basic physical properties of gases, liquids and solids are described in terms of structure, particle movement (kinetic particle theory), effects of temperature and pressure changes, and particle models used to explain these properties and characteristics. Hopefully, theory and fact will match up to give students a clear understanding of the material world around them in terms of gases, liquids and solids referred to as the three physical states of matter . The changes of state known as melting, fusing, boiling, evaporating, condensing, liquefying, freezing, solidifying, crystallising are described and explained with particle model pictures to help understanding. There is also a mention of miscible and immiscible liquids and explaining the terms volatile and volatility when applied to a liquid. These revision notes on the states of matter should prove useful for the new AQA, Edexcel and OCR GCSE (91) chemistry science courses. Subindex for Part I sections (this page) : 1.1. The Three States of Matter, gasliquidsolid particle theory models The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. Either melting and freezing can take place at the melting point, whereas boiling and condensing take place at the boiling point. Evaporation can take place at any temperature from a liquid surface. You can represent the three states of matter with a simple particle model. In this modeldiagrams, the particles are represented by small solid spheres (electron structure is ignored). Kinetic particle theory can help to explain changes of state like melting, boiling, freezing and condensing. The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas depends on the strength of the forces between the particles of the substance. These forces may be relatively weak intermolecular forces (intermolecular bonding) or strong chemical bonds (ionic, covalent or metallic). The nature of the particles involved depends on the type of chemical bonding and the structure of the substance. The stronger the attractive forces between the particles the higher the melting point and boiling point of the substance WHAT ARE THE THREE STATES OF MATTER Most materials can be simply described as a gas, a liquid or a solid. WHY ARE THEY LIKE WHAT THEY ARE Just knowing isnt enough, we need a comprehensive theory of gases, that can explain their behaviour and make predictions about what happens e. g. if we change temperature or pressure. HOW CAN WE EXPLAIN HOW THEY BEHAVE We need a theoretical model e. g. particle theory that is supported by experimental evidence. CAN PARTICLE MODELS HELP US UNDERSTAND THEIR PROPERTIES and CHARACTERISTICS WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO KNOW THE PROPERTIES OF GASES, LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS It is important in the chemical industry to know about the behaviour of gases, liquids and solids in chemical processes e. g. what happens to the different states with changes in temperature and pressure. What is the KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY of gases, liquids and solids The kinetic particle theory of the states of matter is based on the idea of all materials existing as very very tiny particles which may be individual atoms or molecules and the their interaction with each other either by collision in gases or liquids or by vibration and chemical bonding in solids. CAN WE MAKE PREDICTIONS BASED ON THEIR CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES This page introduces general physical descriptions of substances in the simplest physical (nonchemical) classification level i. e. is it a gas, liquid or a solid. BUT, this web page also introduces particle models in which a small circle represents an atom or a molecule i. e. a particular particle or simplest unit of a substance. This section is quite abstract in a way because you are talking about particles you cant see as individually, you just the bulk material and its physical character and properties. Are there LIMITATIONS to the particle model The particles are treated as simple inelastic spheres and just behave like minute snooker balls flying around, not quite true, but they do fly around at random non-stop Although the particles are assumed to be hard spheres and inelastic, in reality they are all sorts of shapes and twist and bend on collision with other particles and when they react they split into fragments when bonds break. The simple model assumes no forces between the particles, untrue, the model takes little account of the forces between the particles, even in gases you get very weak intermolecular forces. The particle model takes no account of the actual size of the particles e. g. ionsmolecules can be widely different in size e. g. compare an ethene molecule with a poly(ethene) molecule The spaces between the particles WHAT IS THE GASEOUS STATE OF MATTER WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF A GAS HOW DO GASEOUS PARTICLES BEHAVE How does the kinetic particle theory of gases explain the properties of gases A gas has no fixed shape or volume, but always spreads out to fill any container - the gas molecules will diffuse into any space available . There are almost no forces of attraction between the particles so they are completely free of each other. The particles are widely spaced and scattered at moving rapidly at random throughout the container so there is no order in the system. The particles move linearly and rapidly in all directions . and frequently collide with each other and the side of the container. The collision of gas particles with the surface of a container causes gas pressure . on bouncing off a surface they exert a force in doing so. With increase in temperature . the particles move faster as they gain kinetic energy . the rate of collisions between the particles themselves and the container surface increases and this increases gas pressure eg in a steam locomotive or the volume of the container if it can expand eg like a balloon. Gases have a very low density (light) because the particles are so spaced out in the container (density mass volume). Density order: solid gt liquid gtgtgt gases Gases flow freely because there are no effective forces of attraction between the gaseous particles molecules. Ease of flow order . gases gt liquids gtgtgt solids (no real flow in solid unless you powder it) Because of this gases and liquids are described as fluids . Gases have no surface . and no fixed shape or volume . and because of lack of particle attraction, they always spread out and fill any container (so gas volume container volume). Gases are readily compressed because of the empty space between the particles. Ease of compression order . gases gtgtgt liquids gt solids (almost impossible to compress a solid) Gas pressure When a gas is confined in a container the particles will cause and exert a gas pressure which is measured in atmospheres ( atm ) or Pascals (1.0 Pa 1.0 Nm 2 ), pressure is forcearea i. e. the effect of all the collisions on the surface of the container. The gas pressure is caused by the force created by millions of impacts of the tiny individual gas particles on the sides of a container . For example if the number of gaseous particles in a container is doubled, the gas pressure is doubled because doubling the number of molecules doubles the number of impacts on the side of the container so the total impact force per unit area is also doubled. This doubling of the particle impacts doubling the pressure is pictured in the two diagrams below. If the volume of a sealed container is kept constant and the gas inside is heated to a higher temperature, the gas pressure increases . The reason for this is that as the particles are heated they gain kinetic energy and on average move faster . Therefore they will collide with the sides of the container with a greater force of impact . so increasing the pressure. There is also a greater frequency of collision with the sides of the container BUT this is a minor factor compared to the effect of increased kinetic energy and the increase in the average force of impact. Therefore a fixed amount of gas in a sealed container of constant volume, the higher the temperature the greater the pressure and the lower the temperature the lesser the pressure. For gas pressuretemperature calculations see Part 2 CharlessGayLussacs Law If the container volume can change, gases readily expand on heating because of the lack of particle attraction, and readily contract on cooling . On heating, gas particles gain kinetic energy . move faster and hit the sides of the container more frequently . and significantly, they hit with a greater force . Depending on the container situation, either or both of the pressure or volume will increase (reverse on cooling). Note: It is the gas volume that expands NOT the molecules, they stay the same size If there is no volume restriction the expansion on heating is much greater for gases than liquids or solids because there is no significant attraction between gaseous particles. The increased average kinetic energy will make the gas pressure rise and so the gas will try to expand in volume if allowed to e. g. balloons in a warm room are significantly bigger than the same balloon in a cold room For gas volumetemperature calculations see Part 2 CharlessGayLussacs Law DIFFUSION in Gases: The natural rapid and random movement of the particles in all directions means that gases readily spread or diffuse . The net movement of a particular gas will be in the direction from lower concentration to a higher concentration, down the socalled diffusion gradient. Di ffusion continues until the concentrations are uniform throughout the container of gases, but ALL the particles keep moving with their ever present kinetic energy Diffusion is faster in gases than liquids where there is more space for them to move ( experiment illustrated below ) and diffusion is negligible in solids due to the close packing of the particles. Diffusion is responsible for the spread of odours even without any air disturbance e. g. use of perfume, opening a jar of coffee or the smell of petrol around a garage. The rate of diffusion increases with increase in temperature as the particles gain kinetic energy and move faster . Other evidence for random particle movement including diffusion . When smoke particles are viewed under a microscope they appear to dance around when illuminated with a light beam at 90 o to the viewing direction. This is because the smoke particles show up by reflected light and dance due to the millions of random hits from the fast moving air molecules. This is called Brownian motion ( see below in liquids ). At any given instant of time, the hits will not be even, so the smoke particle get a greater bashing in a random direction. A two gaseous molecule diffusion experiment is illustrated above and explained below A long glass tube (24 cm diameter) is filled at one end with a plug of cotton wool soaked in conc. hydrochloric acid sealed in with a rubber bung (for health and safety) and the tube is kept perfectly still, clamped in a horizontal position. A similar plug of conc. ammonia solution is placed at the other end. The soaked cotton wool plugs will give off fumes of HCl and NH 3 respectively, and if the tube is left undisturbed and horizontal, despite the lack of tube movement, e. g. NO shaking to mix and the absence of convection, a white cloud forms about 1 3 rd along from the conc. hydrochloric acid tube end . Explanation: What happens is the colourless gases, ammonia and hydrogen chloride, diffuse down the tube and react to form fine white crystals of the salt ammonium chloride. ammonia hydrogen chloride gt ammonium chloride NH 3(g) HCl (g) gt NH 4 Cl (s) Note the rule: The smaller the molecular mass, the greater the average speed of the molecules (but all gases have the same average kinetic energy at the same temperature). Therefore the smaller the molecular mass, the faster the gas diffuses. por exemplo. M r ( NH 3 ) 14 1x3 17 . moves faster than M r ( HCl ) 1 35.5 36.5 AND thats why they meet nearer the HCl end of the tube So the experiment is not only evidence for molecule movement . it is also evidence that molecules of different molecular masses movediffuse at different speeds . For a mathematical treatment see Grahams Law of Diffusion A coloured gas , heavier than air (greater density), is put into the bottom gas jar and a second gas jar of lower density colourless air is placed over it separated with a glass cover. Diffusion experiments should be enclosed at constant temperature to minimise disturbance by convection. If the glass cover is removed then (i) the colourless air gases diffuses down into the coloured brown gas and (ii) bromine diffuses up into the air. The random particle movement leading to mixing cannot be due to convection because the more dense gas starts at the bottom . No shaking or other means of mixing is required. The random movement of both lots of particles is enough to ensure that both gases eventually become completely mixed by diffusion (spread into each other). This is clear evidence for diffusion due to the random continuous movement of all the gas particles and, initially, the net movement of one type of particle from a higher to a lower concentration ( down a diffusion gradient ). When fully mixed, no further colour change distribution is observed BUT the random particle movement continues See also other evidence in the liquid section after the particle model for diffusion diagram below. A particle model of diffusion in gases . Imagine the diffusion gradient from left to right for the green particles added to the blue particles on the left. So, for the green particles, net migration is from left to right and will continue, in a sealed container, until all the particles are evenly distributed in the gas container (as pictured). Diffusion is faster in gases compared to liquidssolutions because there is more space between the particles for other particles to move into at random. When a solid is heated the particles vibrate more strongly as they gain kinetic energy and the particle attractive forces are weakened. Eventually, at the melting point . the attractive forces are too weak to hold the particles in the structure together in an ordered way and so the solid melts. Note that the intermolecular forces are still there to hold the bulk liquid together but the effect is not strong enough to form an ordered crystal lattice of a solid. The particles become free to move around and lose their ordered arrangement. Energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces and give the particles increased kinetic energy of vibration. So heat is taken in from the surroundings and melting is an endothermic process ( 916H ve). Energy changes for these physical changes of state for a range of substances are dealt with in a section of the Energetics Notes . Explained using the kinetic particle theory of liquids and solids On cooling, liquid particles lose kinetic energy and so can become more strongly attracted to each other. When the temperature is low enough, the kinetic energy of the particles is insufficient to prevent the particle attractive forces causing a solid to form. Eventually at the freezing point the forces of attraction are sufficient to remove any remaining freedom of movement (in terms of one place to another) and the particles come together to form the ordered solid arrangement (though the particles still have vibrational kinetic energy. Since heat must be removed to the surroundings, so strange as it may seem, freezing is an exothermic process ( 916H ve). comparative energy changes of state changes gas ltgt liquid ltgt solid 2f(i) Cooling curve . What happens to the temperature of a substance if it is cooled from the gaseous state to the solid state Note the temperature stays constant during the state changes of condensing at temperature Tc . and freezingsolidifying at temperature Tf . This is because all the heat energy removed on cooling at these temperatures (the latent heats or enthalpies of state change), allows the strengthening of the interparticle forces (intermolecular bonding) without temperature fall. The heat loss is compensate d by the exothermic increased intermolecular force attraction. In between the horizontal state change sections of the graph, you can see the energy removal reduces the kinetic energy of the particles, lowering the temperature of the substance. See section 2. for detailed description of the state changes. A cooling curve summarises the changes: For each change of state, energy must be removed . known as the latent heat . Actual energy values for these physical changes of state for a range of substances are dealt with in more detail in the Energetics Notes . 2f(ii) Heating curve . What happens to the temperature of a substance if it is heated from the solid state to the gaseous state Note the temperature stays constant during the state changes of melting at temperature Tm and boiling at temperature Tb . This is because all the energy absorbed in heating at these temperatures (the latent heats or enthalpies of state change), goes into weakening the interparticle forces (intermolecular bonding) without temperature rise The heat gain equals the endothermicheat absorbed energy required to reduce the intermolecular forces. In between the horizontal state change sections of the graph, you can see the energy input increases the kinetic energy of the particles and raising the temperature of the substance. See section 2. for detailed description of the state changes. A heating curve summarises the changes: For each change of state, energy must be added . known as the latent heat . Actual energy values for these physical changes of state for a range of substances are dealt with in more detail in the Energetics Notes. SPECIFIC LATENT HEATS The latent heat for the state changes solid ltgt liquid is called the specific latent heat of fusion (for melting or freezing). The latent heat for the state changes liquid ltgt gas is called the specific latent heat of vaporisation (for condensing, evaporation or boiling) For more on latent heat see my physics notes on specific latent heat Explained using the kinetic particle theory of gases and solids This is when a solid, on heating, directly changes into a gas without melting, AND the gas on cooling reforms a solid directly without condensing to a liquid. Sublimation usually just involves a physical change BUT its not always that simple (see ammonium chloride). Theory in terms of particles . When the solid is heated the particles vibrate with increasing force from the added thermal energy. If the particles have enough kinetic energy of vibration to partially overcome the particleparticle attractive forces you would expect the solid to melt. HOWEVER, if the particles at this point have enough energy at this point that would have led to boiling, the liquid will NOT form and the solid turns directly into a gas. Overall endothermic change . energy absorbed and taken in to the system. On cooling, the particles move slower and have less kinetic energy. Eventually, when the particle kinetic energy is low enough, it will allow the particleparticle attractive forces to produce a liquid. BUT the energy may be low enough to permit direct formation of the solid, i. e. the particles do NOT have enough kinetic energy to maintain a liquid state Overall exothermic change . energy released and given out to the surroundings. Even at room temperature bottles of solid iodine show crystals forming at the top of the bottle above the solid. The warmer the laboratory, the more crystals form when it cools down at night If you gently heat iodine in a test tube you see the iodine readily sublime and recrystallise on the cooler surface near the top of the test tube. The formation of a particular form of frost involves the direct freezing of water vapour (gas). Frost can also evaporate directly back to water vapour (gas) and this happens in the dry and extremely cold winters of the Gobi Desert on a sunny day. H 2 O (s) H 2 O (g) (physical change only) Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) is formed on cooling the gas down to less than 78 o C. On warming it changes directly to a very cold gas. condensing any water vapour in the air to a mist, hence its use in stage effects. CO 2 (s) CO 2 (g) (physical change only) On heating strongly in a test tube, white solid ammonium chloride . decomposes into a mixture of two colourless gases ammonia and hydrogen chloride. On cooling the reaction is reversed and solid ammonium chloride reforms at the cooler top surface of the test tube. Ammonium chloride heat energy ammonia hydrogen chloride T his involves both chemical and physical changes and is so is more complicated than examples 1. to 3. In fact the ionic ammonium chloride crystals change into covalent ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases which are naturally far more volatile (covalent substances generally have much lower melting and boiling points than ionic substances). The liquid particle picture does not figure here, but the other models fully apply apart from state changes involving liquid formation. GAS particle model and SOLID particle model links. PLEASE NOTE, At a higher level of study . you need to study the gls phase diagram for water and the vapour pressure curve of ice at particular temperatures . For example, if the ambient vapour pressure is less than the equilibrium vapour pressure at the temperature of the ice, sublimation can readily take place. The snow and ice in the colder regions of the Gobi Desert do not melt in the Sun, they just slowly sublimely disappear 2 h. More on the heat changes in physical changes of state Changes of physical state i. e. gas ltgt liquid ltgt solid are also accompanied by energy changes. To melt a solid, or boilevaporate a liquid, heat energy must be absorbed or taken in from the surroundings, so these are endothermic energy changes. The system is heated to effect these changes. To condense a gas, or freeze a solid, heat energy must be removed or given out to the surroundings, so these are exothermic energy changes. The system is cooled to effect these changes. Generally speaking, the greater the forces between the particles, the greater the energy needed to effect the state change AND the higher the melting point and boiling point. A comparison of energy needed to melt or boil different types of substance (This is more for advanced level students) The heat energy change involved in a state change can be expressed in kJmol of substance for a fair comparison. In the table below 916H melt is the energy needed to melt 1 mole of the substance (formula mass in g). 916H vap is the energy needed to vaporise by evaporation or boiling 1 mole of the substance (formula mass in g). For simple small covalent molecules, the energy absorbed by the material is relatively small to melt or vaporise the substance and the bigger the molecule the greater the intermolecular forces. These forces are weak compared to the chemical bonds holding atoms together in a molecule itself. Relatively low energies are needed to melt or vapourise them. These substances have relatively low melting points and boiling points. For strongly bonded 3D networks e. g. (iii) and a metal lattice of ions and free outer electrons ( m etallic bonding ), the structures are much stronger in a continuous way because of the continuous chemical bonding throughout the structure. Consequently, much greater energies are required to melt or vaporise the material. This is why they have so much higher melting points and boiling points. Type of bonding, structure and attractive forces operating Melting point K (Kelvin) o C 273 Energy needed to melt substance Boiling point K (Kelvin) o C 273 Energy needed to boil substance 3a. WHAT HAPPENS TO PARTICLES WHEN A SOLID DISSOLVES IN A LIQUID SOLVENT What do the words SOLVENT, SOLUTE and SOLUTION mean When a solid (the solute ) dissolves in a liquid (the solvent ) the resulting mixture is called a solution . In general: solute solvent gt solution So, the solute is what dissolves in a solvent, a solvent is a liquid that dissolves things and the solution is the result of dissolving something in a solvent. The solid loses all its regular structure and the individual solid particles (molecules or ions) are now completely free from each other and randomly mix with the original liquid particles, and all particles can move around at random. This describes salt dissolving in water, sugar dissolving in tea or wax dissolving in a hydrocarbon solvent like white spirit. It does not usually involve a chemical reaction, so it is generally an example of a physical change . Whatever the changes in volume of the solid liquid, compared to the final solution, the Law of Conservation of Mass still applies. This means: mass of solid solute mass of liquid solvent mass of solution after mixing and dissolving. You cannot create mass or lose mass . but just change the mass of substances into another form. If the solvent is evaporated . then the solid is reformed e. g. if a salt solution is left out for a long time or gently heated to speed things up, eventually salt crystals form, the process is called crystallisation . 3b. WHAT HAPPENS TO PARTICLES WHEN TWO LIQUIDS COMPLETELY MIX WITH EACH OTHER WHAT DOES THE WORD MISCIBLE MEAN Using the particle model to explain miscible liquids. If two liquids completely mix in terms of their particles, they are called miscible liquids because they fully dissolve in each other. This is shown in the diagram below where the particles completely mix and move at random. The process can be reversed by fractional distillation . 3c. WHAT HAPPENS TO PARTICLES WHEN TWO LIQUIDS DO NOT MIX WITH EACH OTHER WHAT DOES THE WORD IMMISCIBLE MEAN WHY DO THE LIQUIDS NOT MIX Using the particle model to explain immiscible liquids. If the two liquids do NOT mix . they form two separate layers and are known as immiscible liquids, illustrated in the diagram below where the lower purple liquid will be more dense than the upper layer of the green liquid. You can separate these two liquids using a separating funnel . The reason for this is that the interaction between the molecules of one of the liquids alone is stronger than the interaction between the two different molecules of the different liquids. For example, the force of attraction between water molecules is much greater than either oiloil molecules or oilwater molecules, so two separate layers form because the water molecules, in terms of energy change, are favoured by sticking together. 3d. How a separating funnel is used 1. The mixture is put in the separating funnel with the stopper on and the tap closed and the layers left to settle out. 2. The stopper is removed, and the tap is opened so that you can carefully run the lower grey layer off first into a beaker. 3. The tap is then closed again, leaving behind the upper yellow layer liquid, so separating the two immiscible liquids. Appendix 1 some SIMPLE particle pictures of ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS and MIXTURES GCSEIGCSE multiple choice QUIZ on states of matter gases, liquids amp solids Some easy basic exercises from KS3 science QCA 7G quotParticle model of solids, liquids and gasesquot Multiple Choice Questions for Science revision on gases, liquids and solids particle models, properties, explaining the differences between them. See also for gas calculations gcse chemistry revision free detailed notes on states of matter to help revise igcse chemistry igcse chemistry revision notes on states of matter O level chemistry revision free detailed notes on states of matter to help revise gcse chemistry free detailed notes on states of matter to help revise O level chemistry free online website to help revise states of matter for gcse chemistry free online website to help revise states of matter for igcse chemistry free online website to help revise O level states of matter chemistry how to succeed in questions on states of matter for gcse chemistry how to succeed at igcse chemistry how to succeed at O level chemistry a good website for free questions on states of matter to help to pass gcse chemistry questions on states of matter a good website for free help to pass igcse chemistry with revision notes on states of matter a good website for free help to pass O level chemistry what are the three states of matter draw a diagram of the particle model diagram of a gas, particle theory of a gas, draw a particle model diagram of a liquid, particle theory of a liquid, draw a particle model diagram of a solid, particle theory of a solid, what is diffusion why can you have diffusion in gases and liquids but not in solids what are the limitations of the particle model of a gas liquid or solid how to use the particle model to explain the properties of a gas, what causes gas pressure how to use the particle model to explain the properties of a solid, how to use the particle model to explain the properties of a solid, why is a gas easily compressed but difficult to compress a liquid or solid how do we use the particle model to explain changes of state explaining melting with the particle model, explaining boiling with the particle model, explaining evaporation using the particle model, explaining condensing using the particle model, explaining freezing with the particle model, how do you read a thermometer wor king out the state of a substance at a particular temperature given its melting point and boiling point, how to draw a cooling curve, how to draw a heating curve, how to explain heatingcooling curves in terms of state changes and latent heat, what is sublimation what substances sublime explaining endothermic and exothermic energy changes of state, using the particle model to explain miscible and immiscible liquids GASES, LIQUIDS, SOLIDS, States of Matter, particle models, theory of state changes, melting, boiling, evaporation, condensing, freezing, solidifying, cooling curves, 1.1 Three states of matter: 1.1a gases, 1.1b liquids, 1.1c solids 2. State changes: 2a evaporation and boiling, 2b condensation, 2c distillation, 2d melting, 2e freezing, 2f cooling and heating curves and relative energy changes, 2g sublimation 3. Dissolving, solutions. miscibleimmiscible liquids Boiling Boiling point Brownian motion Changes of state Condensing Cooling curve Diffusion Dissolving Evaporation Freezing Freezing point Gas particle picture Heating curve Liquid particle picture Melting Melting point miscibleimmiscible liquids Properties of gases Properties of liquids Properties of solids solutions sublimation Solid particle picture GCSEIGCSE multiple choice QUIZ on states of matter gases liquids solids practice revision questions Revision notes on particle models and properties of gases, liquids and solids KS4 Science GCSEIGCSEO level Chemistry Information on particle models and properties of gases, liquids and solids for revising for AQA GCSE Science, Edexcel Science chemistry IGCSE Chemistry notes on particle models and properties of gases, liquids and solids OCR 21st Century Science, OCR Gateway Science notes on particle models and properties of gases, liquids and solids WJEC gcse science chemistry notes on particl e models and properties of gases, liquids and solids CIE O Level chemistry CIE IGCSE chemistry notes on particle models and properties of gases, liquids and solids CCEACEA gcse science chemistry (revise courses equal to US grade 8, grade 9 grade 10) science chemistry courses revision guides explanation chemical equations for particle models and properties of gases, liquids and solids educational videos on particle models and properties of gases, liquids and solids guidebooks for revising particle models and properties of gases, liquids and solids textbooks on particle models and properties of gases, liquids and solids state changes amp particle model for AQA AS chemistry, state changes amp particle model for Edexcel A level AS chemistry, state changes amp particle model for A level OCR AS chemistry A, state changes amp particle model for OCR Salters AS chemistry B, state changes amp particle model for AQA A level chemistry, state changes amp particle model for A level Edexcel A level c hemistry, state changes amp particle model for OCR A level chemistry A, state changes amp particle model for A level OCR Salters A level chemistry B state changes amp particle model for US Honours grade 11 grade 12 state changes amp particle model for pre-university chemistry courses pre-university A level revision notes for state changes amp particle model A level guide notes on state changes amp particle model for schools colleges academies science course tutors images pictures diagrams for state changes amp particle model A level chemistry revision notes on state changes amp particle model for revising module topics notes to help on understanding of state changes amp particle model university courses in science careers in science jobs in the industry laboratory assistant apprenticeships technical internships USA US grade 11 grade 11 AQA A level chemistry notes on state changes amp particle model Edexcel A level chemistry notes on state changes amp particle model for OCR A level chem istry notes WJEC A level chemistry notes on state changes amp particle model CCEACEA A level chemistry notes on state changes amp particle model for university entrance examinations describe some limitations of the particle model for gases, liquids and solidsWant To Study Psychology An Experimental Study of Apparent Behavior by Fritz Heider Marianne Simmel is a landmark study in the field of interpersonal perception, in particular in relation to the attribution process when making judgments of others. Before reading this classic article, have a look at the film footage in the video below (which was central to the authors methodological design.) What do you think is going on in the video Try telling the story of the video in a few sentences and try to answer the following questions. What kind of a person is the big triangle What kind of a person is the little triangle What kind of a person is the circle (disc) Why did the two triangles fight Why did the circle go into the house In one part of the movie the big triangle and the circle were in the house together. What did the big triangle do then Why What did the circle do when it was in the house with the big triangle Why In one part of the movie the big triangle was shut up in the house and tried to get out. What did the little triangle and the circle do then Why did the big triangle break the house By doing this it will allow you to fully appreciate the thinking behind the experiment as well as allowing you to compare your responses with the original sample of subjects from 1944 The Article in Full The processes which are involved in perceiving other individuals, their behavior and their personal qualities, have received but little attention in psychological literature. Although these processes are basic in almost any social act, few experimental investigations relating to them are to be found. It is true that there have been studies concerning the inference of emotions from gestures or facial change. But most of these leave the reader with a feeling of disappointment and with the conviction that facial expressions - at least as taken by themselves - do not play an important role in the perception of other persons. We are usually referred to the importance of the situation but what features of the situation are of importance or how the situation influences the perception are problems which are left unanswered. The reason is that research in this field has seldom been carried out from the point of view of the psychology of perception. The problem usually studied has concerned the correct interpretation of expression, and not the stimulus-configuration as a determinant of interpretation. The same is true of another group of related investigations which concern the correctness of our judgments of others. If processes of perception are mentioned they are treated only so far as they impair the correctness of judgment. In the investigation of the apprehension of colors, forms, or movement, which has attained a more mature stage of development, questions of achievement or correctness - though these still play a role of legitimate importance with some psychologists (e. g. E. Brunswik) - have largely given way to other problems. When the perception of movement is investigated, it is with the purpose of finding out which stimulus conditions are relevant in the production of phenomenal movement and of determining the influences of the surrounding field. Only when we attempt to answer these questions can we hope to deepen our insight into the processes of perception, whether of movement or of other human beings. SSN IFrame Widget - Blue Find A Psychology School Near You The experiments on the perception of the behavior of others here reported are in method and purpose different from the investigations mentioned. In the first place, instead of presenting faces with the exclusion of the situation, we have presented situations and activities without the face. Secondly, our aim has not been to determine the correctness of the response but instead the dependence of the response on stimulus-configurations. Método. Our subjects were requested to interpret a moving picture-film of about 2 and a half minutes duration in which three geometrical figures (a large triangle, a small triangle and a disc, also called a circle) were shown moving in various directions and at various speeds. The only other figure in the field was a rectangle, a section of which could be opened and closed as a door is. The film, one frame of which is shown in Fig. 1, was produced by a trick-film method. The geometrical figures were cut from cardboard and placed on a horizontal translucent-glass plate illuminated from above. A mirror below the plate threw the image into the camera. After each exposure the figures which were to be shown in motion were moved a short distance, then another exposure was made, and so on. FIGURE 1 . Exposure-Objects Displayed in Various Positions And Configurations From The Moving Film. (Large Triangle, Small Triangle, Disc and House). In the following description of the main features of the picture, the action is, for purposes of reference, divided into scenes. A few anthropomorphic words are used since a description in purely geometrical terms would be too complicated and too difficult to understand. The large triangle is referred to by T, the small triangle by t, the disc by c (circle) and the rectangle by house. 1. T moves toward the house, opens door, moves into the house and closes door. 2. t and c appear and move around near the door 3. T moves out of the house toward t 4. T and t fight, T wins: during the fight, c moves into the house 5. T moves into the house and shuts door 6. T chases c within the house: t moves along the outside of the house toward the door 7. t opens the door and c moves out of the house and t and c close the door 8. T seems to try to get out of the house but does not succeed in opening the door: t and c move in circles around outside of the house and touch each other several times 9. T opens the door and comes out of the house 10. T chases t and c twice around the house 11. t and c leave the field 12. T hits the walls of the house several times: the walls break The scenes of the picture shown in advancing order will be referred to by f (forward) added to the number of the scene, those of the picture shown in reverse by r. Three experiments were performed with three different groups of undergraduate women: 34 Ss in Experiment i: 36 in Experiment ii 44 in Experiment iii. In all three the film was shown twice, instructions given before the presentation of the film. The time allowed for describing the picture and answering the questions was not limited. In the first experiment, instructions were general write down what happened in the picture. In a second (the main) experiment, S was instructed to interpret the movements of the figures as actions of persons and a short sealed questionnaire was prepared which S was asked to open and answer after viewing the picture. It contained the following questions (1) What kind of a person is the big triangle (2) What kind of a person is the little triangle (3) What kind of a person is the circle (disc) (4) Why did the two triangles fight (5) Why did the circle go into the house (6) In one part of the movie the big triangle and the circle were in the house together. What did the big triangle do then Why (7) What did the circle do when it was in the house with the big triangle Why (8) In one part of the movie the big triangle was shut up in the house and tried to get out. What did the little triangle and the circle do then (9) Why did the big triangle break the house (10) Tell the story of the movie in a few sentences. In the third experiment the same picture was shown in reverse. S was instructed to answer Questions 1, 2, 3, and 10, above. In Experiment 1 the instructions were general, in order to find out how many Ss would perceive the picture in terms of animated beings. A large majority of them did. Only one S described the film almost entirely in geometrical terms. Her report follows. A large solid triangle is shown entering a rectangle. It enters and comes out of this rectangle, and each time the corner and one-half of one of the sides of the rectangle form an opening. Then another, smaller triangle and a circle appear on the scene. The circle enters the rectangle while the larger triangle is within. The two move about in circular motion and then the circle goes out of the opening and joins the smaller triangle which has been moving around outside the rectangle. Then the smaller triangle and the circle move about together and when the larger triangle comes out of the rectangle and approaches them, they move rapidly in a circle around the rectangle and disappear. The larger triangle now alone, moves about the opening of the rectangle and finally goes through the opening to the inside. He (sic) moves rapidly within, and, finding no opening, breaks through the sides and disappears. All other Ss interpreted the movements as actions of animate beings, in most cases of persons in two cases of birds. Nineteen Ss reported a connected story. Two examples of this last group are given below, the first representative of the interpretation commonly made in the group, the second an excerpt of a report showing unusual elaboration. (1) A man has planned to meet a girl and the girl comes along with another man. The first man tells the second to go the second tells the first, and he shakes his head. Then the two men have a fight, and the girl starts to go into the room to get out of the way and hesitates and finally goes in. She apparently does not want to be with the first man. The first man follows her into the room after having left the second in a rather weakened condition leaning on the wall outside the room. The girl gets worried and races from one corner to the other in the far part of the room. Man number one, after being rather silent for a while, makes several approaches at her but she gets to the corner across from the door, just as man number two is trying to open it. He evidently got banged around and is still weak from his efforts to open the door. The girl gets out of the room in a sudden dash just as man number two gets the door open. The two chase around the outside of the room together, followed by man number one. But they finally elude him and get away. The first man goes back and tries to open his door, but he is so blinded by rage and frustration that he cannot open it. So he butts it open and in a really mad dash around the room he breaks in first one wall and then another. (2) The first thing we see in this little episode is triangle number-one closing the door of his square. Lets insist that the action of the play is on a two-dimensional surface (not that it makes much difference) and we will undoubtedly start calling the square in which the triangle number one seems to make his dwelling, a house, which infers three dimensions. But we are not sticking to the theme of our story. Triangle number-one shuts his door (or should we say line) and the two innocent young things walk in. Lovers in the two-dimensional world, no doubt little triangle number-two and sweet circle. Triangle-one (hereafter known as the villain) spies the young love. Ah! He opens his door, walks out to see our hero and his sweet. But our hero does not like the interruption (we regret that our actual knowledge of what went on at this particular moment is slightly hazy, I believe we didnt get the exact conversation), he attacks triangle-one rather vigorously (maybe the big bully said some bad word). In this experiment a few features were common to all reports save that first quoted (using geometrical terms). These common features follow. In Scene 4, T and t fight in Scene 8, T is shut up in the house and tries to get out in Scene 10, T chases t and c throughout the picture, T, t and c move the door (the door never moves the actors). In Experiment ii, all Ss followed instructions and interpreted the movements as human actions. We shall try to indicate the degree of uniformity found in the answers. The reasons given for the interpretations are necessarily only tentative and based on impressions in viewing the picture. Questions 4 and 10 refer to the main interpretations Q.4: Why did the two triangles fight and Q.10: Tell the story of the movie in a few sentences. All reports have in common the following features. (1). T and t fight. The events of impulsion with sudden impact give rise to this interpretation. (2) t and c belong together and are in antagonism to T. The reason for this is that during the course of the picture t and c are frequently shown moving together, they appear together in the field and they leave the field together. On the other hand, t fights T, and c is chased by T. The fight between T and t is the central event and the stories can best be classified in terms of the cause of this fight. In 11 cases (30) this cause lies in the personality of T. T is an aggressive bully and he attacks t, or t and c, without any further reason. In one of these cases, T is a witch who tries to catch the children t and c. In the remaining cases the cause lies, at least in part, in the situation. The most common interpretation (18 cases, 50) is that T and t are two men who fight over the girl or woman c. This story has several variations: T does not want to marry c T is the villain, t the hero and c his sweetheart the wife c of T came home with another man. In three cases it is stated that T and t fight over c, but no allusion is made to an erotic triangle. In opposition to these cases are those in which the cause of the fight lies in the behavior of t and c. Two Ss write that T is provoked to his aggression by the fact that t and c tease him in one case the fight started because t and c want to regain the house which T had taken from them one S reports that T is an angry mother who wants to punish her two children because they came home late. Thus S obtains a unified story and a central theme by referring to the causes of the events as seen in the picture. Q. 1: What kind of a person is the big triangle The personality of T is judged with great uniformity. The expressions used are classified below in groups containing words with similar meaning. After each group is indicated the number and (after the larger groups) also the percentage of Ss who used at least one word of a given group. Aggressive, warlike, belligerent, pugnacious, quarrelsome, troublesome, mean, angry, bad-tempered, temperamental, irritable, quick to take offense, bully, villain, taking advantage of his size, picking on smaller people, dominating, power-loving, possessive. N 35 (97) Strong, forceful, slow but powerful. N 5 (14) Dumb, stupid, apt to get confused, more strength than brains. N 3 (8) Ugly, not attractive, spoiled, always on defensive, shy, crafty and sly. One S each. We might expect that T would be described differently according to whether the cause of the fight is seen to lie in his personal characteristics or in the situation. Even an average man can become aggressive when he is provoked. T is almost always described, however, as an aggressive bully, even in the cases in which the fight starts, because t and c tease T. The reason lies probably in the way he fights t. He is portrayed in the picture as hitting t relentlessly until t cannot move and is pinned against the wall. T makes the impression of being strong, probably not so much because of his greater size as because he wins in the fight with t. The interpretation T defeats t itself is based on the following data: T hits t more often than t hits T t is driven backward by T at the end of the fight t stands motionless against the wall while T hits him. That T is described (3 Ss) as stupid is a consequence of the interpretation T is fooled by t and c, i. e. T is locked up in his house by t and c and is thus frustrated in his attempt to chase them. Q. 2: What kind of a person is the small triangle Heroic, valiant, brave, courageous, fearless, defiant, more aggressive than c, independent, resents being bullied, a fighter, does not allow himself to submit, spirited, cocky, snappy. N 17 (47) Timidly aggressive, antagonizer, then afraid, not too brave, quick to run away. N 4 (11) Cagy, sly, crafty, tricky, wary, brains instead of brawn, clever, intellectual. N 13 (36) Weak, not very strong. N 6 (17) Protective, loyal, devoted. N 5 (14) Inquisitive, likes to tease, appealing, attractive, more personality, less force, persevering, persistent, quiet. (One S each) Figure t is called brave by many because, though smaller than T, he hits back and defends himself and c. He is clever and tricky because he is more active than c and therefore he is usually considered the cause of the locking up of T. In 4 cases there is reported an element of cowardice in the description of t. We can assume that in these cases the reason for his going back in the fight may then be differently regarded, i. e. not his physical inferiority to T, but his fear of T. Q. 3: What kind of person is the circle Does not like fighting, is frightened, afraid, fearful, cowardly, shy, timid, meek, not too sure of herself, goes where t goes, a follower, not much personality of her own, less initiative and nerve, relies for protection on t, helpless, dependent. N 27 (75) Girl, woman, female, feminine. N 22 (61) Shrewd, intelligent, clever, smart. N 5 (14) Courageous, resistant, has courage. N 4 (11) Weak. N 3 (8) Opportunist, looks after own good, teasing, curious, playful, good natured, more gentle, very refined, nervous, retiring, beautiful, loyal, affectionate, coming to aid when necessary. (One S each) The withdrawing of c during the fight and the fact that c never hits T accounts for the description of it as afraid, meek, etc. Some Ss obviously make c at least partly responsible for the ruse played on T and call c clever. Q. 5: Why did the circle go into the house For protection, afraid to watch fight, frightened by fighting, to get out of the way of the fight, scared, tried to hide, for shelter against T, to escape villain T, afraid of what T might do to t. N 33 (92) 2 Ss have c chased in or forced in by T, and one S makes c go in order to lure T in and trap it: In the first and second experiments, the majority of Ss interpret the event as hiding (though not always using this word). This high degree of uniformity is probably produced by the simultaneous event of T and t fighting and the movements of c preceding cs entrance to the house. It is clear that c is afraid of the fight. Q. 6: In one part of the picture, the big triangle and the circle were in the house together. What did the big triangle do then Why T always subject, c object: went after, tried to catch, chased, cornered, trapped, tried to get closer to, tried to pin down, attacked, tried to harm, to kill, to torture, punished, pushed into corner. N 27 (75) Tried to kiss, made love to. N 3 (8) Was mad at and scolded stood in front of c keeping c in suspense, closed the door to keep t out, stood guard at door afraid that t would come in, did not know what to do. (One S each) The high degree of uniformity in the answers to this question is determined mainly by the temporal relationships of the movements. It is a case of successive movements without contact, which will be described later. Q. 7: What did the circle do when it was in the house with the big triangle Why Ran away from, avoided, eluded, evaded, stayed away from, tried to escape, did not want T to catch her, was almost captured, retreated, ran into corner, was afraid of, scared, terrified, frightened, shrank from, became nervous, disliked, was bored with. N 33 (92) Tried to distract Ts attention from t, tried to tempt T into attacking it so that it could shut T in the house, fought with T. (One S each) Most of the Ss report that c tried to run away from T partly because c was afraid of T. N 14 (39) partly because c disliked, or was bored by, T. N 3 (8). In two cases c is seen as cause c tried to distract or tempt T. These cases belong to those exceptions in which c is described as playing a more active role (resistant and courageous and coming to aid when necessary). Q. 8: In one part of the picture the big triangle was shut up in the house and tried to get out. What did the little triangle and the circle do then Were elated, happy, glad, joyful. N 8 (22) Kissed each other. N 3 (8) Congratulated each other and shook hands very pleased (1) The other answers either described merely the movements (ran around) or referred to the scene immediately following (escaped). The interpretation of the circular movements of c and t around each other and of their touching each other, as expressions of joyful emotion, is probably determined to a high degree by the preceding events T is locked up in the house and t and c are together again. Q. 9: Why did the big triangle break the house 34 Ss (95) write to the effect that T was mad and thwarted because c and t had escaped. The act is again interpreted as an indication of emotion. One S puts the blame partly on Ts personality (a problem child). Two connect the act more definitely with the house. T decided that it wasnt a strong enough trap to capture anybody, and the purpose of the house could not be fulfilled without the circle, and then there would be no need for it. These results show the possibility of investigating thus the perception of behavior of persons. The stimulus has many geometrical and temporal features which can be defined in an exact way and which can be varied infinitely. The tentative analysis of the answers to the questionary seems also to point to the great importance which causal interpretation plays in the organization of the events into a story. A few events stand out and are seen by all Ss in the same way these events are organized into a meaningful whole which contains causal centers (persons). Events and persons gain their significance by the way they are causally connected. In Experiment iii, the picture was shown in reverse. All but two Ss again interpreted the movements as human actions. The interpretations show much more variation and, presumably, more projection than those of Experiment ii, and do not lend themselves to a quantitative analysis. Some of the results referring to single scenes will be given in the next section. Following are three examples of the answers to the question: Tell the story of the movie in a few sentences. Man (T) finds himself in chaos, which finally resolves itself into a sort of cell representing Fate. He is able to free himself (but only temporarily), when Woman (c) accompanied by Evil (t) comes upon him, and disrupts his momentary peace. He feels called upon to rescue her, but Evil imprisons them both by Fate, from which Man escapes, leaving the woman there for safe-keeping. He at first seems to vanquish Evil, but Woman comes into the picture again and again disrupts Man. She goes off with Evil, as he seems the winner of the struggle, and Man, not understanding her, himself, or anything, resigns himself to Fate. T is supposed to be in jail. The little ball (c) has come to kill him. When c and T are in the cell, t comes down to tell c how to kill T, T escapes, and t, unable to kill him, finally puts him back in the cell. The executioner and the keeper, thinking that their prisoner is safely locked in, go away but the prisoner manages to escape unnoticed. The story might be interpreted as an argument between husband and wife over child. The big triangle is the father, the smaller triangle the mother, and the disc the child. The father sent the child off in a room. The mother tries to persuade it to come out. When the child cannot be persuaded, the father and mother have a fight about it. The mother assails the father who does little to fight back. Finally the child comes out and goes off with his mother, leaving the father alone. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS We shall now attempt to answer in a more systematic way the question of how the interpretations arise. Interpretation of the movement combinations. (1) Successive movements with momentary contact. We shall first consider the stimulus conditions for elementary actions. Scene 4f offers an easy approach to such an analysis. Most of our Ss in Experiment i described this event in the same way and, indeed, the apprehension of the moving T and t as hitting each other is phenomenally compelling. In order to begin our analysis we shall have to describe the stimulus-configuration and then to make clear the term hitting. The stimulus consists of co-ordinated movements of T and t. T rapidly approaches t until it comes into contact with it. Then T stands still while, at the moment of contact, t starts moving in the direction of Ts previous movement. S has the strong impression of a transfer of kinetic energy from T to t. One could almost speak of an apparent movement of energy. Ts movement is clearly the cause and ts movement (reeling back under the impact of Ts blows) is the effect. This phenomenal relationship is obviously determined by temporal succession and spatial proximity. The good continuation of the line-the fact that the direction of ts movement continues the direction of Ts probably plays a ro1e in the convincing appearance of this apparent energetic movement. Another example of causation by impact occurs in Scene 12f, which all Ss in Experiment i interpreted as T breaking the house. Again the impression of an apparent movement of energy is very strong. The effect consists here, not merely in a backward movement of the units as struck but also in a breaking to pieces. (2) Simultaneous movements with prolonged contact. When the actors (T, t or c) are seen opening or closing the door, they seem to impart movement to the door, not by sudden impact but by pushing or pulling in prolonged contact. The stimulus-conditions are very simple: when T opens or shuts the door, T and the door move together in contact. The problem at once arises as to what determines which of two things moving together shall be seen as the origin and which as recipient of the movement. In the case of impulsion by sudden impact just considered, the causal origin is determined by succession in the events. In the case of slow pushing or pulling the local stimulus-conditions are insufficient for a full determination of the origin of locomotion. Actually the interpretations are highly uniform in the case of the door. All Ss see the actors as pushing or pulling the door. This is true whether the picture is shown forward or in reverse. A scene in the forward film in which T closes the door by pushing is interpreted in reverse as T opens the door by pulling. The reversal changes only the activity, not the origin. With impulsion by sudden contact it is different reversal changes the temporal relation of the events and thereby the origin. What is seen in the forward picture as T hitting t, is seen in reverse as t hitting T. The reason for the fact that T, t or c, rather than the door, is always seen as origin must lie in the larger field in which the local event door-actor-movement is embedded. The door never moves of itself, i. e. without another moving unit in contact with it. T, t and c continually move around by themselves. These units are therefore described as persons, as potential origins of movement. If the door had been shown in other parts of the picture as moving independently, and T (for instance) as never moving alone, then a combined movement of the door and T would be ascribed to the door as origin, the door would push T. (3) Simultaneous movements without contact. The situation is somewhat similar when two or more units move in the same direction, one behind the other, without touching each other. Such stimulus conditions are again ambiguous and the interpretation will vary according to the place of origin of the movement. Let A be the front unit and B the back unit. Then if A is seen as origin, A will lead B. If B is seen as origin, B will chase A. In leading or chasing, both units have to move under their own power, both must be persons or animals, and the transmission of movement is not by means of physical, but by means of psychological causation. Again the surrounding data can determine the phenomenal position of the origin. In Scene 10f there occurs an event which was in almost all cases interpreted as T chases t and c. The film order is as follows T, t and c move together but not in contact with each other, twice around the house. T moves behind t and c. We can safely say that the reason for this uniform interpretation of T as the origin lies in the interpretation of the previous parts of the picture. The event T chases t and c is coordinated to two facts T is stronger than t and c, and there is an antagonism between T and the pair t and c. These two features are contained in almost all interpretations of the forward picture. Therefore, the event has to be interpreted as T chases t and c if it is to conform to what has happened before. In the reverse picture, we do not find such uniformity in the interpretation of Scene 10. In only 13 cases (31 of the 42 Ss who were able to follow instructions) the event is dealt with explicitly. In 9 cases the origin is put definitely in T or in t and c. Since in the r-picture c and t move behind T, the interpretation is c and t chase T when c and t are taken as the origin (4 cases), and T leads c and t when T is the origin (5 cases). Which interpretation is taken depends again on the interpretation of the rest of the story and the kind of persons the actors are taken to be. In the 4 cases with t and c as origin, T has the following characteristics (1) T has done wrong, t and c rout T, (2) T timid, t fierce, (3) T a coward, (4) T is cautious, prudent. The 5 cases with T as the origin have the following features (1) T is a bully, mean, clever and constructive (he has constructed a house and then shown the outside of the house to t and c), (2) T is aggressive (he tries to lead t and c into the house), (3) T is dictatorial and stubborn (he wants to rent his house to t and c and shows it to them), (4) T is a bully and playful (he lures t and c into the house), (5) T is a person of initiative, a good business man (he tries to sell his idea or his house to t and c and shows it to them). The r-picture has no definite organization and it lends itself to very different interpretations. But each interpretation presents a unified whole and these parts, which are ambiguous as parts, are made to fit the whole. And one of the most important sources of ambiguity is the possibility of seeing the origin of changes in different individuals. If one sees two animals running in file through high grass, one will interpret these movements in accordance with other data. If the one in front is a rabbit and the one behind a dog, he will perceive a dog chasing a rabbit. If the first one is a big rabbit and the second a small one, he will not see chasing but leading and following. (4) Successive movements without contact. In Scene 6f, T and c are in the house and the following movements occur c stands in one corner, T approaches c suddenly but before T reaches c, c suddenly moves to another corner. This sequence is repeated several times. The movements of T and c are again successive. The origin is determined by the temporal relationship. In Experiment ii (Q6), 95 of the Ss interpret the event as T chases c or T is the aggressor, c tries to evade T, etc. In the r-picture this event is interpreted only 4 times. Three times c is the origin (c tries to drive T out of the house c tries to catch T c keeps T inside the house). In one case the interpretation is ambiguous 7 T, surprised at first by intruder c, finds her unresponsive to any friendly overtures. The unit which moves first is again more likely to be seen as the origin. It is another case of post hoc ergo propter hoc and a reversal of succession reverses the attribution of origin. Causal origins . Thus we see that the interpretation of these simple movement-combinations varies according to the unit seen as the origin. The movements of lines and figures are the stimuli but these movements become anchored in a field of objects and persons and are interpreted as acts. The distinction between perception that is relatively more directed by the stimulus and a perception that is more directed by the object can be applied in this case as legitimately as, for instance, in color-perception. Phenomenal movements per se are comparable to reduction colors, and acts of persons are comparable to object-colors. In both cases we can speak of attribution. In the case of color-perception the color is attributed in different degrees either to object or to illumination. In the case of movement-combinations the movement is attributed to the one or the other moving unit. In other words, the movements (or, more generally, any changes in the field) are organized in terms of acts of persons. It is obvious that this organization has many advantages from the point of view of achievement i. e. from the point of view of the adaptation of the organism to the environment. The changes, when identified with a constant figural unit, no longer follow each other in an arbitrary and unconnected way. They are connected with invariable characteristics of the environment they are meaningfully embedded in our picture of reality. We saw how the interpretation of movements is intimately connected with the interpretation of personality-traits of the actors, i. e. with the interpretation of invariancies. But this organization must be considered also from the point of view of performance. What processes take part in it How is this result attained These questions cannot be answered on the basis of these experiments. It might be useful, however, to try to use an hypothesis of unit-formation. The movements and changes are in some way identified with figural units and thereby gain the significance of acts. Are persons units consisting of figural units and movements as their parts And if movements are at all considered as parts, are they parts of a special kind Does this unit-formation follow some of the laws of purely figural unit-formation These are some of the questions to which such an hypothesis would lead us. In trying to answer them we may come nearer to an adequate theory. Needs as origins . So far we have only considered the attribution of the origin of movement to persons as a whole. Often the attribution goes beyond that. The descriptions not only make clear which person, but also what motive or need within that person, is responsible for the movement. As a matter of fact, as soon as we ascribe a certain movement to a figural unit and consider this unit as an animated being, perception of motive or need is involved. When we see T hitting t we seem to perceive at the same time that T wants to hurt t. When we see T chasing c the fact of T wanting to catch c seems to be implied. But often the attribution to motive adds something and differentiates between different interpretations of actions with the same person as origin. This can be seen in the interpretation of the events of entering and leaving. During the picture it happens several times that one of the actors (T or c) moves either in or out of the house. These movements, which can be defined in topological terms as entering or leaving the region of the house, give rise to various interpretations. The moving-in is called hiding, being-forced-in, being-lured-in, etc. The moving out is called escaping, being-invited-out, being-let-out, etc. What are the conditions which determine which of these interpretations is used to describe one and the same scene When we try to classify these interpretations, we find first of all that they differ according to whether the origin is attributed to the entering or leaving person itself or to another person. To the first class belong spontaneous actions (such as hiding or escaping) to the second class such induced movements as being-forced-out, being invited-in, etc. But these are not the only differences which appear in the interpretations. A person can enter a house in order to hide or in order to look for something in the house. That is to say that, although the moving person himself is the origin in both cases, the motivation may be different. Expressions like going to hide and escaping refer to movements and at the same time to motives. We cannot read off the motivation from the movements themselves, e. g. from the movement of a circle entering the house. Movements of the other actors, or of preceding or succeeding events, offer cues for the determination of motives. In Scene 4f, c enters the house of 14 Ss who mention the origin of the event in Experiment i, 11 describe it as hiding, running to shelter (92 in Experiment. ii), etc. 2 as being pushed-in by T, and one as going in because c does not want to be with T. When T enters the house in Scene 5f, the event is, in all the 9 cases where mention is made of the origin (Experiment i ), described as T follows c in, T goes in to pursue c, etc. This interpretation is probably based on the immediately following Scene 6f, in which T chases c around within the house. Scene 5f is assimilated in regard to the origin to Scene 6f and both the movements of entering and the movements of chasing c are then interpreted as manifestations of the same motive to catch c. Thus we see that the event figure-entering-house may be interpreted in many ways as hiding, as pursuing somebody, or as being pushed in. The surrounding field determines the motive, and thereby the meaning of the event. A description of movements in terms of motives again taps environmental layers of greater invariancy. Just as the successive perspective views of a landscape seen through the window of a moving train can only be resolved, or made to yield a meaningful unit, by reference to distant objects laid out in space, so acts of persons have to be viewed in terms of motives in order that the succession of changes becomes a connected sequence. A motion picture which shows movements of three geometrical figures was the material of the investigation. It was presented to a first group of 34 Ss with the instruction to describe it to a second group (36 Ss) with the instruction to interpret the movements as actions of persons and to answer a number of questions relating to them. A third group (44 Ss) was treated like the second except that the picture was shown in reverse and with fewer questions. The reports show that all but one S of Group I, all of Group II, and all but two of Group III interpreted the picture in terms of actions of animated beings, chiefly of persons. A characteristic feature of this organization in terms of actions is the attribution of the origin of movements to figural units and to motives. It has been shown that this attribution of the origin influences the interpretation of the movements, and that it depends in some cases on the characteristics of the movements themselves, in others on surrounding objects. The way in which the actors are judged is closely connected with this attribution of origin. It is held that this method is useful in investigating the way the behavior of other persons is perceived. Feb 23, 17 10:41 AM
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